Child Psychology
Developmental psychology, also known as Human Development, is the scientific study of progressive psychological changes that occur in human beings as they age. Originally concerned with infants and children, and later other periods of great change such as adolescence and aging, it now encompasses the entire life span. This field examines change across a broad range of topics including motor skills and other psycho-physiological processes, problem solving abilities, conceptual understanding, acquisition of language, moral understanding, and identity formation.
Developmental psychologists investigate key questions, such as whether children are qualitatively different from adults or simply lack the experience that adults draw upon. Other issues that they deal with is the question of whether development occurs through the gradual accumulation of knowledge or through shifts from one stage of thinking to another; or if children are born with innate knowledge or figure things out through experience; and whether development is driven by the social context or by something inside each child.
Developmental psychology informs several applied fields, including: educational psychology, child psychopathology and developmental forensics. Developmental psychology complements several other basic research fields in psychology including social psychology, cognitive psychology, cognitive development, and comparative psychology.
Childhood psychiatric disorders :
Abandoned child syndrome is a behavioral or psychological condition that results from the loss of one or both parents. Abandonment may be physical (the parent is not present in the child's life) or emotional (the parent withholds affection, nurturing, or stimulation). Many countries, like Russia and China, have an alarmingly high rate of physically abandoned children. A 1998 Human Rights Watch committee report found that more than 100,000 children per year were abandoned in Russia. Parents leave their children for many reasons, including trouble with the law, financial insecurity, the child is mentally or physically challenged, and sometimes population control policies. Involuntary loss of a parent, such as through divorce or death, can also create abandonment issues.
Parents who leave their children, whether with or without good reason, can cause irreversible psychological damage to the child.[1] Abandoned children may also often suffer physical damage from neglect, malnutrition, starvation, and abuse. Substantial research indicates that contact with adults of both sexes encourages a child's balanced development.
Abandoned Child Syndrome is not listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (fourth edition).
Symptoms may be physical and/or mental, and may extend into adulthood and perhaps throughout a person's life.
Alienation from the environment - withdrawal from social activities, resistance towards others.
Guilt - the child believes that he did something wrong that caused the abandonment (often associated with depression).
Fear and uncertainty - clinginess, insecurities.
Sleep and eating disorders - malnutrition, starvation, disturbed sleep, nightmares.
Physical ailments - fatigue, depression, lack of energy and creativity, anger, grief.
Adjustment disorder refers to a psychological disturbance that develops in response to a stressor. Adjustment disorders are caused by specific sources of stress, such as severe personal crisis (divorce, death of loved one, recent abuse, recent job changes) or major unexpected negative events (tornado or fire destroys a person's home). The usual symptoms mimic depression, anxiety, or sleep disorder; however the disturbance disorder is short-term and can usually be treated with counselling or mild short-term medication. If the problem persists more than six months after removal of the stressor, the person may have a more permanent problem, such as a chronic mood or sleep disorder.
Adopted child syndrome is a controversial term that has been used to explain behaviors in adopted children that are claimed to be related to their adoptive status. Specifically, these include problems in bonding, attachment disorders, lying, stealing, defiance of authority, and acts of violence. The term has never achieved acceptance in the professional community. The term is not found in the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, 4th edition, TR. David Kirschner, who coined the term, says that most adoptees are not disturbed and that the syndrome only applies to "a small clinical subgroup".
Asperger syndrome (also referred to as Asperger's syndrome, Asperger's disorder, Asperger's, or AS) is a pervasive developmental disorder (PDD) on the autistic spectrum. It manifests in various ways and can have both positive and negative effects on a person. It is typically characterized by issues with social and communication skills. Due to the mixed nature of its effects, it remains controversial among researchers, physicians, and people who are diagnosed with Asperger's Syndrome.
Asperger syndrome is not differentiated from other autistic spectrum disorders by a minority of clinicians who instead refer to it as high-functioning autism (HFA) because the claim that the normal early development and lack of any language delay mean that the symptoms differ only in degree from classic autism. Early in life people with AS can have learning disabilities. However, IQ tests may show superior intelligence or very high memory capacity in diagnosed individuals.
The diagnosis of AS is complicated by the lack of standardized diagnostic criteria. Instead, several different screening instruments and sets of diagnostic criteria are used. AS is often not identified in early childhood, and many individuals are not diagnosed until they are adults. Assistance for core symptoms of AS consists of therapies that apply behaviour management strategies and address poor communication skills, obsessive or repetitive routines, and physical clumsiness. Many individuals with AS can adopt strategies for coping and do lead fulfilling lives - being gainfully employed, having successful relationships, and having families. In most cases, they are aware of their differences and can recognize if they need any support to maintain an independent life.
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is generally considered to be a developmental disorder, largely neurological in nature, affecting 3–5 percent of the population. The disorder is characterized by a persistent pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity. ADHD initially appears in childhood and manifests itself with symptoms such as hyperactivity, forgetfulness, poor impulse control, and distractibility. ADHD is currently considered to be a persistent and chronic condition for which no medical cure is available. ADHD is most commonly diagnosed in children and, over the past decade, has been increasingly diagnosed in adults. It is believed that around 60% of children diagnosed with ADHD retain the disorder as adults. Studies show that there is a familial transmission of the disorder which does not occur through adoptive relationships. Twin studies indicate that the disorder is highly heritable and that genetics contribute for about three quarters of the total ADHD population. While the majority of ADHD is believed to be genetic in nature, roughly about 1/5 of all ADHD cases are thought to be acquired after conception due to brain injury caused by either toxins or physical trauma prenatally or postnatally.
According to a majority of medical research in the United States, as well as other countries, ADHD is today generally regarded to be a non-curable disorder for which, however, some effective treatments are available. Over 200 controlled studies have shown that stimulant medication is an effective way to treat the symptoms of ADHD. Methods of treatment usually involve some combination of medication, behaviour modification, life style changes, or counselling. Certain social critics are skeptical that the diagnosis denotes a genuine impairment or disability. The symptoms of ADHD are not as profoundly different from normal behavior as is often seen with other mental disorders. Still, ADHD has been shown to be impairing in life functioning in several settings and many negative life outcomes are associated with ADHD.
Autism is classified by the World Health Organization and American Psychological Association as a developmental disability that results from a disorder of the human central nervous system. It is diagnosed using specific criteria for impairments to social interaction, communication, interests, imagination and activities. The causes, symptoms, etiology, treatment, and other issues are controversial.
Autism manifests itself "before the age of three years" according to the World Health Organization's International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10). Children with autism are marked by delays in their "social interaction, language as used in social communication, or symbolic or imaginative play" (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders).
Autism, and the other four pervasive developmental disorders (PDD), are all considered to be neurodevelopmental disorders. They are diagnosed on the basis of a triad, or group of three behavioral impairments or dysfunctions: impaired social interaction, impaired communication, and restricted and repetitive interests and activities. These three basic characteristics reflect Dr. Leo Kanner's first reports of autism emphasizing "autistic aloneness" and "insistence on sameness."
From a physiological standpoint, autism is often less than obvious in that outward appearance may not indicate a disorder. Diagnosis typically comes from a complete patient history and physical and neurological evaluation.
Child psychopathology is the manifestation of psychological disorders in children and adolescents. Oppositional defiant disorder, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, and pervasive developmental disorder are examples of child psychopathology. Social workers, psychologists and psychiatrists who work with mentally ill children are informed by research in developmental psychology, developmental psychopathology, clinical child psychology, and family systems.
The current trend in the U.S. is to understand child psychopathology from a systems based perspective called developmental psychopathology. Recent emphasis has also been on understanding psychological disorders from a relational perspective with attention also given to neurobiology.
Research and clinical work on child psychopathology tends to fall under several main areas: etiology, epidemiology, diagnosis, assessment, and treatment.
Childhood disintegrative disorder (CDD), also known as Heller's syndrome and disintegrative psychosis, is a rare condition characterized by late onset (>3 years of age) of developmental delays in language, social function, and motor skills. Researchers have not been successful in finding a cause for the disorder.
CDD has some similarity to autism, but an apparent period of fairly normal development is often noted before a regression in skills or a series of regressions in skills. Many children are already somewhat delayed when the illness becomes apparent, but these delays are not always obvious in young children.
The age at which this regression can occur varies, and can be from age 2-10 with the definition of this onset depending largely on opinion.
Regression can be very sudden, and the child may even voice concern about what is happening, much to the parent's surprise. Some children describe or appear to be reacting to hallucinations, but the most obvious symptom is that skills apparently attained are lost. This has been described by many writers as a devastating condition, affecting both the family and the individual's future. As is the case with all Pervasive Developmental Disorder categories, there is considerable controversy around the right treatment for CDD.
The syndrome was originally described by Austrian educator Theodore Heller in 1908, 35 years before Leo Kanner described autism, but it has not been officially recognised until recently. Heller used the name dementia infantilis for the syndrome.
Disorder of written expression is a childhood condition characterized by poor writing skills. To some extent, 3 - 10% of school-age children are affected by this disorder. This disorder appears by itself or in conjunction with other learning or developmental disabilities.
Symptoms :
Poor spelling.
Errors in grammar.
Errors in punctuation.
Poor handwriting.
Developmental psychologists investigate key questions, such as whether children are qualitatively different from adults or simply lack the experience that adults draw upon. Other issues that they deal with is the question of whether development occurs through the gradual accumulation of knowledge or through shifts from one stage of thinking to another; or if children are born with innate knowledge or figure things out through experience; and whether development is driven by the social context or by something inside each child.
Developmental psychology informs several applied fields, including: educational psychology, child psychopathology and developmental forensics. Developmental psychology complements several other basic research fields in psychology including social psychology, cognitive psychology, cognitive development, and comparative psychology.
Childhood psychiatric disorders :
Abandoned child syndrome is a behavioral or psychological condition that results from the loss of one or both parents. Abandonment may be physical (the parent is not present in the child's life) or emotional (the parent withholds affection, nurturing, or stimulation). Many countries, like Russia and China, have an alarmingly high rate of physically abandoned children. A 1998 Human Rights Watch committee report found that more than 100,000 children per year were abandoned in Russia. Parents leave their children for many reasons, including trouble with the law, financial insecurity, the child is mentally or physically challenged, and sometimes population control policies. Involuntary loss of a parent, such as through divorce or death, can also create abandonment issues.
Parents who leave their children, whether with or without good reason, can cause irreversible psychological damage to the child.[1] Abandoned children may also often suffer physical damage from neglect, malnutrition, starvation, and abuse. Substantial research indicates that contact with adults of both sexes encourages a child's balanced development.
Abandoned Child Syndrome is not listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (fourth edition).
Symptoms may be physical and/or mental, and may extend into adulthood and perhaps throughout a person's life.
Alienation from the environment - withdrawal from social activities, resistance towards others.
Guilt - the child believes that he did something wrong that caused the abandonment (often associated with depression).
Fear and uncertainty - clinginess, insecurities.
Sleep and eating disorders - malnutrition, starvation, disturbed sleep, nightmares.
Physical ailments - fatigue, depression, lack of energy and creativity, anger, grief.
Adjustment disorder refers to a psychological disturbance that develops in response to a stressor. Adjustment disorders are caused by specific sources of stress, such as severe personal crisis (divorce, death of loved one, recent abuse, recent job changes) or major unexpected negative events (tornado or fire destroys a person's home). The usual symptoms mimic depression, anxiety, or sleep disorder; however the disturbance disorder is short-term and can usually be treated with counselling or mild short-term medication. If the problem persists more than six months after removal of the stressor, the person may have a more permanent problem, such as a chronic mood or sleep disorder.
Adopted child syndrome is a controversial term that has been used to explain behaviors in adopted children that are claimed to be related to their adoptive status. Specifically, these include problems in bonding, attachment disorders, lying, stealing, defiance of authority, and acts of violence. The term has never achieved acceptance in the professional community. The term is not found in the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, 4th edition, TR. David Kirschner, who coined the term, says that most adoptees are not disturbed and that the syndrome only applies to "a small clinical subgroup".
Asperger syndrome (also referred to as Asperger's syndrome, Asperger's disorder, Asperger's, or AS) is a pervasive developmental disorder (PDD) on the autistic spectrum. It manifests in various ways and can have both positive and negative effects on a person. It is typically characterized by issues with social and communication skills. Due to the mixed nature of its effects, it remains controversial among researchers, physicians, and people who are diagnosed with Asperger's Syndrome.
Asperger syndrome is not differentiated from other autistic spectrum disorders by a minority of clinicians who instead refer to it as high-functioning autism (HFA) because the claim that the normal early development and lack of any language delay mean that the symptoms differ only in degree from classic autism. Early in life people with AS can have learning disabilities. However, IQ tests may show superior intelligence or very high memory capacity in diagnosed individuals.
The diagnosis of AS is complicated by the lack of standardized diagnostic criteria. Instead, several different screening instruments and sets of diagnostic criteria are used. AS is often not identified in early childhood, and many individuals are not diagnosed until they are adults. Assistance for core symptoms of AS consists of therapies that apply behaviour management strategies and address poor communication skills, obsessive or repetitive routines, and physical clumsiness. Many individuals with AS can adopt strategies for coping and do lead fulfilling lives - being gainfully employed, having successful relationships, and having families. In most cases, they are aware of their differences and can recognize if they need any support to maintain an independent life.
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is generally considered to be a developmental disorder, largely neurological in nature, affecting 3–5 percent of the population. The disorder is characterized by a persistent pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity. ADHD initially appears in childhood and manifests itself with symptoms such as hyperactivity, forgetfulness, poor impulse control, and distractibility. ADHD is currently considered to be a persistent and chronic condition for which no medical cure is available. ADHD is most commonly diagnosed in children and, over the past decade, has been increasingly diagnosed in adults. It is believed that around 60% of children diagnosed with ADHD retain the disorder as adults. Studies show that there is a familial transmission of the disorder which does not occur through adoptive relationships. Twin studies indicate that the disorder is highly heritable and that genetics contribute for about three quarters of the total ADHD population. While the majority of ADHD is believed to be genetic in nature, roughly about 1/5 of all ADHD cases are thought to be acquired after conception due to brain injury caused by either toxins or physical trauma prenatally or postnatally.
According to a majority of medical research in the United States, as well as other countries, ADHD is today generally regarded to be a non-curable disorder for which, however, some effective treatments are available. Over 200 controlled studies have shown that stimulant medication is an effective way to treat the symptoms of ADHD. Methods of treatment usually involve some combination of medication, behaviour modification, life style changes, or counselling. Certain social critics are skeptical that the diagnosis denotes a genuine impairment or disability. The symptoms of ADHD are not as profoundly different from normal behavior as is often seen with other mental disorders. Still, ADHD has been shown to be impairing in life functioning in several settings and many negative life outcomes are associated with ADHD.
Autism is classified by the World Health Organization and American Psychological Association as a developmental disability that results from a disorder of the human central nervous system. It is diagnosed using specific criteria for impairments to social interaction, communication, interests, imagination and activities. The causes, symptoms, etiology, treatment, and other issues are controversial.
Autism manifests itself "before the age of three years" according to the World Health Organization's International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10). Children with autism are marked by delays in their "social interaction, language as used in social communication, or symbolic or imaginative play" (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders).
Autism, and the other four pervasive developmental disorders (PDD), are all considered to be neurodevelopmental disorders. They are diagnosed on the basis of a triad, or group of three behavioral impairments or dysfunctions: impaired social interaction, impaired communication, and restricted and repetitive interests and activities. These three basic characteristics reflect Dr. Leo Kanner's first reports of autism emphasizing "autistic aloneness" and "insistence on sameness."
From a physiological standpoint, autism is often less than obvious in that outward appearance may not indicate a disorder. Diagnosis typically comes from a complete patient history and physical and neurological evaluation.
Child psychopathology is the manifestation of psychological disorders in children and adolescents. Oppositional defiant disorder, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, and pervasive developmental disorder are examples of child psychopathology. Social workers, psychologists and psychiatrists who work with mentally ill children are informed by research in developmental psychology, developmental psychopathology, clinical child psychology, and family systems.
The current trend in the U.S. is to understand child psychopathology from a systems based perspective called developmental psychopathology. Recent emphasis has also been on understanding psychological disorders from a relational perspective with attention also given to neurobiology.
Research and clinical work on child psychopathology tends to fall under several main areas: etiology, epidemiology, diagnosis, assessment, and treatment.
Childhood disintegrative disorder (CDD), also known as Heller's syndrome and disintegrative psychosis, is a rare condition characterized by late onset (>3 years of age) of developmental delays in language, social function, and motor skills. Researchers have not been successful in finding a cause for the disorder.
CDD has some similarity to autism, but an apparent period of fairly normal development is often noted before a regression in skills or a series of regressions in skills. Many children are already somewhat delayed when the illness becomes apparent, but these delays are not always obvious in young children.
The age at which this regression can occur varies, and can be from age 2-10 with the definition of this onset depending largely on opinion.
Regression can be very sudden, and the child may even voice concern about what is happening, much to the parent's surprise. Some children describe or appear to be reacting to hallucinations, but the most obvious symptom is that skills apparently attained are lost. This has been described by many writers as a devastating condition, affecting both the family and the individual's future. As is the case with all Pervasive Developmental Disorder categories, there is considerable controversy around the right treatment for CDD.
The syndrome was originally described by Austrian educator Theodore Heller in 1908, 35 years before Leo Kanner described autism, but it has not been officially recognised until recently. Heller used the name dementia infantilis for the syndrome.
Disorder of written expression is a childhood condition characterized by poor writing skills. To some extent, 3 - 10% of school-age children are affected by this disorder. This disorder appears by itself or in conjunction with other learning or developmental disabilities.
Symptoms :
Poor spelling.
Errors in grammar.
Errors in punctuation.
Poor handwriting.
posted by Илона Голкова at 1:36 AM
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