Personality psychology is a branch of psychology which studies personality and individual differences. One emphasis in this area is to construct a coherent picture of a person and his or her major psychological processes. Another emphasis views personality as the study of individual differences, in other words, how people differ from each other. A third area of emphasis examines human nature and how all people are similar to one other. These three viewpoints merge together in the study of personality.
Personality can be defined as a dynamic and organized set of characteristics possessed by a person that uniquely influences his or her cognitions, motivations, and behaviors in various situations (Ryckman, 2004). The word "personality" originates from the greek persona, which means mask. Significantly, in the theatre of the ancient Latin-speaking world, the mask was not used as a plot device to disguise the identity of a character, but rather was a convention employed to represent or typify that character.
The pioneering American psychologist, Gordon Allport (1937) described two major ways to study personality, the nomothetic and the idiographic. Nomothetic psychology seeks general laws that can be applied to many different people, such as the principle of self-actualization, or the trait of extraversion. Idiographic psychology is an attempt to understand the unique aspects of a particular individual.
The study of personality has a rich and varied history in psychology, with an abundance of theoretical traditions. Some psychologists have taken a highly scientific approach, whereas others have focused their attention on theory development. There is also a substantial emphasis on the applied field of personality testing.
Personality disorders form a class of mental disorders that are characterized by long-lasting rigid patterns of thought and actions. Because of the inflexibility and pervasiveness of these patterns, they can cause serious problems and impairment of functioning for the persons who are afflicted with these disorders.
Personality disorders are seen by the American Psychiatric Association as an enduring pattern of inner experience and behavior that deviates markedly from the expectations of the culture of the individual who exhibits it. These patterns are inflexible and pervasive across many situations. The onset of the pattern can be traced back at least to the beginning of adulthood. To be diagnosed as a personality disorder, a behavioral pattern must cause significant distress or impairment in personal, social, and/or occupational situations.
General diagnostic criteria for a personality disorder
To make a diagnosis of a personality disorder, these criteria must be satisfied in addition to the specific criteria listed under the individually named personality disorders.
A. Experience and behavior that deviates markedly from the expectations of the individual's culture. This pattern is manifested in two (or more) of the following areas:
cognition (perception and interpretation of self, others and events)
affect (the range, intensity, lability, and appropriateness of emotional response)
interpersonal functioning
impulse control
B. The enduring pattern is inflexible and pervasive across a broad range of personal and social situations.
C. The enduring pattern leads to clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.
D. The pattern is stable and of long duration and its onset can be traced back at least to adolescence or early adulthood.
E. The enduring pattern is not better accounted for as a manifestation or consequence of another mental disorder.
F. The enduring pattern is not due to the direct physiological effects of a substance or a general medical condition such as head injury.
People under 18 years old who fit the criteria of a personality disorder are usually not diagnosed with such a disorder, although they may be diagnosed with a related disorder. Antisocial personality disorder cannot be diagnosed at all in persons under 18.
List of personality disorders defined in the DSM
The DSM-IV lists ten personality disorders, which are grouped into three clusters:
Cluster A (odd or eccentric disorders)
Paranoid personality disorder
Schizoid personality disorder
Schizotypal personality disorder
Cluster B (dramatic, emotional, or erratic disorders)
Antisocial personality disorder
Borderline personality disorder
Histrionic personality disorder
Narcissistic personality disorder
Cluster C (anxious or fearful disorders)
Avoidant personality disorder
Dependent personality disorder (not the same as Dysthymia)
Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (not the same as Obsessive-compulsive disorder)
The DSM-IV also contains a category for behavioural patterns that do not match these ten disorders, but nevertheless have the characteristics of a personality disorder; this category is labeled Personality Disorder NOS (Not Otherwise Specified). The revision of the previous edition of the DSM, DSM-III-R, also contained the Passive-Aggressive Personality Disorder, the Self-Defeating Personality Disorder, and the Sadistic Personality Disorder. Passive-Aggressive Personality Disorder is a pattern of negative attitudes and passive resistance in interpersonal situations. Self-defeating personality disorder is characterised by behaviour that consequently undermines the person's pleasure and goals. Sadistic Personality Disorder is a pervasive pattern of cruel, demeaning, and aggressive behavior. These categories were removed in the current version of the DSM, because it is questionable whether these are separate disorders. Passive-Aggressive Personality Disorder and Depressive personality disorder were placed in an appendix of DSM-IV for research purposes.
Treatment of Personality Disorders.
To people who have a Personality Disorder their (inappropriate) behaviour seems completely normal and appropriate. The feeling for malfunctioning or suffering is mostly diffuse and vague.
This makes therapy more difficult, since these patients are not not motivated to change, but try to avoid making changes. They are motivated to stabilize their situation and therefore they often block the efforts of the therapist.
Most of the patients don't seek therapy because of their Personality disorder, but because of other problems (for example depression). Often it is a relative who makes the person with a Personality Disorder consult a therapist, because it is a problem to live with someone who has that kind of disorder.
Another factor making therapy more complicated is that the patient has a problem with his/her interpersonal relations. This can also lead to problems in the relationship between patient and therapist.
Therefore it is very important for the patient with a Personality Disorder to develop a motivation for therapy and to actively aim for a change. The actual therapy of a patient with a Personality Disorder can be twofold: Psychopharmacological treatment (medication) and psychotherapy.
a) Pharmacological treatment (medication)
There is no pharmacological standard therapy for Personality Disorders. Symptoms of different Personality Disorders may be treated with different kinds of medication.
Examples:
Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) (for example Citalopram, Paroxetine, Sertraline, Fontex, Prozac)
Depressive syndromes
Obsessive-compulsive syndromesAnxiety More
Being tense, loss of impulse control, aggressiveness
Atypical Antipsychotics (for example Quetiapin) for
Psychotic symptoms
Loss of impulse control, aggressiveness
Anticonvulsants/Antiepileptics (for example Lithium, Carbamazepin, Valproat) for
Loss of impulse control, aggressiveness
Labile mood
Benzodiazepines (for example Lorazepam, Diazepam)
Acute arousal states
Acute anxiety states
b) Psychotherapy
Two important (but not the only) forms of therapy for Personality disorders are:
Cognitive Behavioural therapy
Insight therapy (psychodynamic therapy , gestalt therapy , etc.)
The purpose of a therapy of a Personality Disorder is not a complete cure, because it would neither be possible nor desirable to change the personality of a person completely. In fact, the main intention of psychotherapy is to compensate the differences for a longer period, so that the patient becomes socially adaptive and will feel better. This is about working on thinking and behaviour patterns, which cause problems and are harmful for the patient and his/her environment.
Personality can be defined as a dynamic and organized set of characteristics possessed by a person that uniquely influences his or her cognitions, motivations, and behaviors in various situations (Ryckman, 2004). The word "personality" originates from the greek persona, which means mask. Significantly, in the theatre of the ancient Latin-speaking world, the mask was not used as a plot device to disguise the identity of a character, but rather was a convention employed to represent or typify that character.
The pioneering American psychologist, Gordon Allport (1937) described two major ways to study personality, the nomothetic and the idiographic. Nomothetic psychology seeks general laws that can be applied to many different people, such as the principle of self-actualization, or the trait of extraversion. Idiographic psychology is an attempt to understand the unique aspects of a particular individual.
The study of personality has a rich and varied history in psychology, with an abundance of theoretical traditions. Some psychologists have taken a highly scientific approach, whereas others have focused their attention on theory development. There is also a substantial emphasis on the applied field of personality testing.
Personality disorders form a class of mental disorders that are characterized by long-lasting rigid patterns of thought and actions. Because of the inflexibility and pervasiveness of these patterns, they can cause serious problems and impairment of functioning for the persons who are afflicted with these disorders.
Personality disorders are seen by the American Psychiatric Association as an enduring pattern of inner experience and behavior that deviates markedly from the expectations of the culture of the individual who exhibits it. These patterns are inflexible and pervasive across many situations. The onset of the pattern can be traced back at least to the beginning of adulthood. To be diagnosed as a personality disorder, a behavioral pattern must cause significant distress or impairment in personal, social, and/or occupational situations.
General diagnostic criteria for a personality disorder
To make a diagnosis of a personality disorder, these criteria must be satisfied in addition to the specific criteria listed under the individually named personality disorders.
A. Experience and behavior that deviates markedly from the expectations of the individual's culture. This pattern is manifested in two (or more) of the following areas:
cognition (perception and interpretation of self, others and events)
affect (the range, intensity, lability, and appropriateness of emotional response)
interpersonal functioning
impulse control
B. The enduring pattern is inflexible and pervasive across a broad range of personal and social situations.
C. The enduring pattern leads to clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.
D. The pattern is stable and of long duration and its onset can be traced back at least to adolescence or early adulthood.
E. The enduring pattern is not better accounted for as a manifestation or consequence of another mental disorder.
F. The enduring pattern is not due to the direct physiological effects of a substance or a general medical condition such as head injury.
People under 18 years old who fit the criteria of a personality disorder are usually not diagnosed with such a disorder, although they may be diagnosed with a related disorder. Antisocial personality disorder cannot be diagnosed at all in persons under 18.
List of personality disorders defined in the DSM
The DSM-IV lists ten personality disorders, which are grouped into three clusters:
Cluster A (odd or eccentric disorders)
Paranoid personality disorder
Schizoid personality disorder
Schizotypal personality disorder
Cluster B (dramatic, emotional, or erratic disorders)
Antisocial personality disorder
Borderline personality disorder
Histrionic personality disorder
Narcissistic personality disorder
Cluster C (anxious or fearful disorders)
Avoidant personality disorder
Dependent personality disorder (not the same as Dysthymia)
Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (not the same as Obsessive-compulsive disorder)
The DSM-IV also contains a category for behavioural patterns that do not match these ten disorders, but nevertheless have the characteristics of a personality disorder; this category is labeled Personality Disorder NOS (Not Otherwise Specified). The revision of the previous edition of the DSM, DSM-III-R, also contained the Passive-Aggressive Personality Disorder, the Self-Defeating Personality Disorder, and the Sadistic Personality Disorder. Passive-Aggressive Personality Disorder is a pattern of negative attitudes and passive resistance in interpersonal situations. Self-defeating personality disorder is characterised by behaviour that consequently undermines the person's pleasure and goals. Sadistic Personality Disorder is a pervasive pattern of cruel, demeaning, and aggressive behavior. These categories were removed in the current version of the DSM, because it is questionable whether these are separate disorders. Passive-Aggressive Personality Disorder and Depressive personality disorder were placed in an appendix of DSM-IV for research purposes.
Treatment of Personality Disorders.
To people who have a Personality Disorder their (inappropriate) behaviour seems completely normal and appropriate. The feeling for malfunctioning or suffering is mostly diffuse and vague.
This makes therapy more difficult, since these patients are not not motivated to change, but try to avoid making changes. They are motivated to stabilize their situation and therefore they often block the efforts of the therapist.
Most of the patients don't seek therapy because of their Personality disorder, but because of other problems (for example depression). Often it is a relative who makes the person with a Personality Disorder consult a therapist, because it is a problem to live with someone who has that kind of disorder.
Another factor making therapy more complicated is that the patient has a problem with his/her interpersonal relations. This can also lead to problems in the relationship between patient and therapist.
Therefore it is very important for the patient with a Personality Disorder to develop a motivation for therapy and to actively aim for a change. The actual therapy of a patient with a Personality Disorder can be twofold: Psychopharmacological treatment (medication) and psychotherapy.
a) Pharmacological treatment (medication)
There is no pharmacological standard therapy for Personality Disorders. Symptoms of different Personality Disorders may be treated with different kinds of medication.
Examples:
Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) (for example Citalopram, Paroxetine, Sertraline, Fontex, Prozac)
Depressive syndromes
Obsessive-compulsive syndromesAnxiety More
Being tense, loss of impulse control, aggressiveness
Atypical Antipsychotics (for example Quetiapin) for
Psychotic symptoms
Loss of impulse control, aggressiveness
Anticonvulsants/Antiepileptics (for example Lithium, Carbamazepin, Valproat) for
Loss of impulse control, aggressiveness
Labile mood
Benzodiazepines (for example Lorazepam, Diazepam)
Acute arousal states
Acute anxiety states
b) Psychotherapy
Two important (but not the only) forms of therapy for Personality disorders are:
Cognitive Behavioural therapy
Insight therapy (psychodynamic therapy , gestalt therapy , etc.)
The purpose of a therapy of a Personality Disorder is not a complete cure, because it would neither be possible nor desirable to change the personality of a person completely. In fact, the main intention of psychotherapy is to compensate the differences for a longer period, so that the patient becomes socially adaptive and will feel better. This is about working on thinking and behaviour patterns, which cause problems and are harmful for the patient and his/her environment.
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